`:top

`!Rust`! is a `F33f`_`[general-purpose`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=General-purpose_programming_language]`_`f `F33f`_`[programming language`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Programming_language]`_`f emphasizing `F33f`_`[performance`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Computer_performance]`_`f, `F33f`_`[type safety`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Type_safety]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[concurrency`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Concurrency_(computer_science)]`_`f. It enforces `F33f`_`[memory safety`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Memory_safety]`_`f, meaning that all `F33f`_`[references`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Reference_(computer_science)]`_`f point to valid memory. It does so without a conventional `F33f`_`[garbage collector`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Garbage_collection_(computer_science)]`_`f; instead, memory safety errors and `F33f`_`[data races`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Data_race]`_`f are prevented by the "borrow checker", which tracks the `F33f`_`[object lifetime`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Object_lifetime]`_`f of references `F33f`_`[at compile time`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Compiler]`_`f.

Rust supports multiple `F33f`_`[programming paradigms`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Programming_paradigm]`_`f. It was influenced by ideas from `F33f`_`[functional programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Functional_programming]`_`f, including `F33f`_`[immutability`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Immutable_object]`_`f, `F33f`_`[higher-order functions`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Higher-order_function]`_`f, `F33f`_`[algebraic data types`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Algebraic_data_type]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[pattern matching`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pattern_matching]`_`f. It also supports `F33f`_`[object-oriented programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Object-oriented_programming]`_`f via structs, `F33f`_`[enums`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Union_type]`_`f, traits, and methods.

Software developer Graydon Hoare created Rust as a personal project while working at `F33f`_`[Mozilla`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mozilla]`_`f Research in 2006. Mozilla officially sponsored the project in 2009. The first stable release of Rust, Rust 1.0, was published in May 2015. Following a large layoff of Mozilla employees in August 2020, multiple other companies joined Mozilla in sponsoring Rust through the creation of the `F33f`_`[Rust Foundation`#rust-foundation]`_`f in February 2021. In December 2022, Rust became the first language other than `F33f`_`[C`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C_(programming_language)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[assembly`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Assembly_language]`_`f to be supported in the development of the `F33f`_`[Linux kernel`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Linux_kernel]`_`f.

Rust has been noted for its adoption in many software projects, especially `F33f`_`[web services`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Web_services]`_`f and `F33f`_`[system software`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=System_software]`_`f. It has been studied academically and has a growing community of developers.

>>Contents

• `F0af`_`[History`#history]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[2006–2009: Early years`#2006-2009-early-years]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[2009–2012: Mozilla sponsorship`#2009-2012-mozilla-sponsorship]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[2012–2015: Evolution`#2012-2015-evolution]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[2015–2020: Servo and early adoption`#2015-2020-servo-and-early-adoption]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[2020–present: Mozilla layoffs and Rust Foundation`#2020-present-mozilla-layoffs-and-rust-foundation]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Syntax and features`#syntax-and-features]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Hello World program`#hello-world-program]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Variables`#variables]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Block expressions and control flow`#block-expressions-and-control-flow]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Pattern matching`#pattern-matching]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Types`#types]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Ownership and references`#ownership-and-references]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[User-defined types`#user-defined-types]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Pointers`#pointers]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Type conversion`#type-conversion]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Polymorphism`#polymorphism]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Memory safety`#memory-safety]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Memory management`#memory-management]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Unsafe`#unsafe]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Macros`#macros]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Interface with C and C++`#interface-with-c-and-c]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Ecosystem`#ecosystem]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Compiler`#compiler]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Cargo`#cargo]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Rustfmt`#rustfmt]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Clippy`#clippy]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Versioning system`#versioning-system]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[IDE support`#ide-support]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Performance`#performance]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Adoption`#adoption]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[In academic research`#in-academic-research]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Community`#community]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Rust Foundation`#rust-foundation]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Governance teams`#governance-teams]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[See also`#see-also]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Notes`#notes]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[References`#references]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Book sources`#book-sources]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Others`#others]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[External links`#external-links]`_`f

-─

>>History

>>>2006–2009: Early years

Rust began as a personal project by `F33f`_`[Mozilla`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mozilla]`_`f employee Graydon Hoare in 2006.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-0[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] Hoare started the project due to his frustration with a broken elevator in his apartment building.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-1[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] Hoare has stated that Rust was named for the `F33f`_`[group of fungi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Rust_(fungus)]`_`f that are "over-engineered for survival".`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-2[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] During the time period between 2006 and 2009, Rust was not publicized to others at Mozilla and was written in Hoare's free time;`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-0[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] Hoare began speaking about the language around 2009 after a small group at Mozilla became interested in the project.`:cite-ref-hoare2010-18-0[`F5bf`_`[15`#cite-note-hoare2010-18]`_`f] Hoare emphasized prioritizing good ideas from old languages over new development, citing languages including `F33f`_`[CLU`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=CLU_(programming_language)]`_`f (1974), `F33f`_`[BETA`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=BETA_(programming_language)]`_`f (1975), `F33f`_`[Mesa`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mesa_(programming_language)]`_`f (1977), `F33f`_`[NIL`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=NIL_(programming_language)]`_`f (1981), `F33f`_`[Erlang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Erlang_(programming_language)]`_`f (1987), `F33f`_`[Newsqueak`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Newsqueak]`_`f (1988), `F33f`_`[Napier`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Napier88]`_`f (1988), `F33f`_`[Hermes`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hermes_(programming_language)]`_`f (1990), `F33f`_`[Sather`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sather]`_`f (1990), `F33f`_`[Alef`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Alef_(programming_language)]`_`f (1992), and `F33f`_`[Limbo`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Limbo_(programming_language)]`_`f (1996) as influences, stating "many older languages [are] better than new ones", and describing the language as "technology from the past come to save the future from itself."`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-1[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]`:cite-ref-hoare2010-18-1[`F5bf`_`[15`#cite-note-hoare2010-18]`_`f] Early Rust developer Manish Goregaokar similarly described Rust as being based on "mostly decades-old research."`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-3[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f]

During the early years, the Rust `F33f`_`[compiler`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Compiler]`_`f was written in about 38,000 lines of `F33f`_`[OCaml`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=OCaml]`_`f.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-2[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]`:cite-ref-ocamlcompiler-19-0[`F5bf`_`[16`#cite-note-ocamlcompiler-19]`_`f] Early Rust contained features such as explicit `F33f`_`[object-oriented programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Object-oriented_programming]`_`f via an `B100`F9d9obj`f`b keyword (later removed),`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-3[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] and a `F33f`_`[typestates`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Typestate_analysis]`_`f system that would allow variables of a type to be tracked along with state changes (such as going from uninitialized to initialized).`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-4[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]

>>>2009–2012: Mozilla sponsorship

Mozilla officially sponsored the Rust project in 2009.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-4[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Brendan Eich`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Brendan_Eich]`_`f and other executives, intrigued by the possibility of using Rust for a safe `F33f`_`[web browser`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Web_browser]`_`f `F33f`_`[engine`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Browser_engine]`_`f, placed engineers on the project including Patrick Walton, Niko Matsakis, Felix Klock, and Manish Goregaokar.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-5[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] A conference room taken by the project developers was dubbed "the nerd cave," with a sign placed outside the door.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-6[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f]

During this time period, work had shifted from the initial OCaml compiler to a `F33f`_`[self-hosting compiler`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Self-hosting_(compilers)]`_`f, `*i.e.`*, written in Rust, based on `F33f`_`[LLVM`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=LLVM]`_`f.`:cite-ref-rust0-1-20-0[`F5bf`_`[17`#cite-note-rust0-1-20]`_`f]`:cite-ref-22[`F5bf`_`[note 4`#cite-note-22]`_`f] The Rust ownership system was also in place by 2010.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-7[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] The Rust logo was developed in 2011 based on a bicycle `F33f`_`[chainring`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Crankset]`_`f.`:cite-ref-23[`F5bf`_`[19`#cite-note-23]`_`f]

The first public release, Rust 0.1 was released on January 20, 2012`:cite-ref-rust0-1a-24-0[`F5bf`_`[20`#cite-note-rust0-1a-24]`_`f] for Windows, Linux, and MacOS.`:cite-ref-extremetechrust0-1-25-0[`F5bf`_`[21`#cite-note-extremetechrust0-1-25]`_`f] The early 2010s saw increasing involvement from open source volunteers outside of Mozilla and outside of the United States. At Mozilla, executives would eventually employ over a dozen engineers to work on Rust full time over the next decade.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-8[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f]

>>>2012–2015: Evolution

The years from 2012 to 2015 were marked by substantial changes to the Rust `F33f`_`[type system`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Type_system]`_`f, especially, removal of the typestate system, consolidation of other language features, and the removal of the `F33f`_`[garbage collector`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Garbage_collection_(computer_science)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-5[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-9[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] Memory management through the ownership system was gradually consolidated and expanded to prevent memory-related bugs. By 2013, the garbage collector feature was rarely used, and was removed by the team in favor of the ownership system.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-10[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] Other changes during this time included the removal of `F33f`_`[pure functions`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pure_function]`_`f, which were declared by an explicit `B100`F9d9pure`f`b annotation, in March 2013.`:cite-ref-26[`F5bf`_`[22`#cite-note-26]`_`f] Specialized syntax support for `F33f`_`[channels`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Channel_(programming)]`_`f and various pointer types were removed to simplify the language.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-6[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]

Rust's expansion and consolidation was influenced by developers coming from `F33f`_`[C++`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C++]`_`f (e.g., low-level performance of features), `F33f`_`[scripting languages`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Scripting_language]`_`f (e.g., Cargo and package management), and `F33f`_`[functional programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Functional_programming]`_`f (e.g., type systems development).`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-7[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]

Graydon Hoare stepped down from Rust in 2013.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-11[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] This allowed it to evolve organically under a more federated governance structure, with a "core team" of initially six people,`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-8[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] around 30-40 developers total across various other teams,`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-9[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] and a Request for Comments (RFC) process for new language features added in March 2014.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-10[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] The core team would grow to nine people by 2016`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-11[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] with over 1600 proposed RFCs.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-12[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]

According to Andrew Binstock writing for `*`F33f`_`[Dr. Dobb's Journal`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dr._Dobb's_Journal]`_`f`* in January 2014, while Rust was "widely viewed as a remarkably elegant language", adoption slowed because it radically changed from version to version.`:cite-ref-27[`F5bf`_`[23`#cite-note-27]`_`f] Rust development at this time was focused on finalizing the language features and moving towards 1.0 so it could begin promising `F33f`_`[backward compatibility`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Backward_compatibility]`_`f.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-13[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]

Six years after Mozilla sponsored its development, the first `F33f`_`[stable release`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Stable_release]`_`f, Rust 1.0, was published on May 15, 2015.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-12[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] A year after the release, the Rust compiler had accumulated over 1,400 contributors and there were over 5,000 third-party libraries published on the Rust package management website Crates.io.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-14[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]

>>>2015–2020: Servo and early adoption

The development of the `F33f`_`[Servo browser engine`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Servo_(software)]`_`f continued in parallel with Rust, jointly funded by Mozilla and `F33f`_`[Samsung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Samsung]`_`f.`:cite-ref-28[`F5bf`_`[24`#cite-note-28]`_`f] The teams behind the two projects worked in close collaboration; new features in Rust were tested out by the Servo team, and new features in Servo were used to give feedback back to the Rust team.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-15[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] The first version of Servo was released in 2016.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-13[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] The `F33f`_`[Firefox`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Firefox]`_`f web browser shipped with Rust code as of 2016 (version 45),`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-16[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]`:cite-ref-29[`F5bf`_`[25`#cite-note-29]`_`f] but components of Servo did not appear in Firefox until September 2017 (version 57) as part of the `F33f`_`[Gecko`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gecko_(software)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Quantum`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gecko_(software)]`_`f projects.`:cite-ref-30[`F5bf`_`[26`#cite-note-30]`_`f]

Improvements were made to the Rust toolchain ecosystem during the years following 1.0 including `F33f`_`[Rustfmt`#rustfmt]`_`f, `F33f`_`[integrated development environment`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Integrated_development_environment]`_`f integration,`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-17[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] a regular compiler testing and release cycle,`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-18[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f] a community `F33f`_`[code of conduct`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Code_of_conduct]`_`f, and community discussion organized through an `F33f`_`[IRC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=IRC]`_`f chat.`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-19[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]

The earliest adoption outside of Mozilla was by individual projects at Samsung, `F33f`_`[Facebook`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Facebook]`_`f (now `F33f`_`[Meta Platforms`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Meta_Platforms]`_`f), `F33f`_`[Dropbox`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dropbox]`_`f, and others including Tilde, Inc. (the company behind `F33f`_`[ember.js`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ember.js]`_`f).`:cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-20[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17]`_`f]`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-14[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Amazon Web Services`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Amazon_Web_Services]`_`f followed in 2020.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-15[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] Engineers cited performance, lack of a garbage collector, safety, and pleasantness of working in the language as reasons for the adoption, while acknowledging that it was a risky bet as Rust was new technology. Amazon developers cited a finding by Portuguese researchers that Rust code `F33f`_`[uses less energy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Energy_efficiency_in_computing]`_`f compared to similar code written in `F33f`_`[Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Java_(programming_language)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[C++`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C++]`_`f, behind only `F33f`_`[C`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C_(programming_language)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-16[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f]`:cite-ref-2017portugalenergystudy-31-0[`F5bf`_`[27`#cite-note-2017portugalenergystudy-31]`_`f]`:cite-ref-32[`F5bf`_`[note 5`#cite-note-32]`_`f]

>>>2020–present: Mozilla layoffs and Rust Foundation

In August 2020, Mozilla laid off 250 of its 1,000 employees worldwide, as part of a corporate restructuring caused by the `F33f`_`[COVID-19 pandemic`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=COVID-19_pandemic]`_`f.`:cite-ref-33[`F5bf`_`[28`#cite-note-33]`_`f]`:cite-ref-34[`F5bf`_`[29`#cite-note-34]`_`f] The team behind Servo was disbanded. The event raised concerns about the future of Rust, due to the overlap between the two projects.`:cite-ref-35[`F5bf`_`[30`#cite-note-35]`_`f] In the following week, the Rust Core Team acknowledged the severe impact of the layoffs and announced that plans for a Rust foundation were underway. The first goal of the foundation would be to take ownership of all `F33f`_`[trademarks`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Trademark]`_`f and `F33f`_`[domain names`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Domain_name]`_`f, and take financial responsibility for their costs.`:cite-ref-36[`F5bf`_`[31`#cite-note-36]`_`f]

On February 8, 2021, the formation of the `F33f`_`[Rust Foundation`#rust-foundation]`_`f was announced by five founding companies: `F33f`_`[Amazon Web Services`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Amazon_Web_Services]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Google`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Google]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Huawei`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Huawei]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Microsoft`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Microsoft]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Mozilla`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mozilla]`_`f.`:cite-ref-37[`F5bf`_`[32`#cite-note-37]`_`f]`:cite-ref-38[`F5bf`_`[33`#cite-note-38]`_`f] The foundation, led by Shane Miller for its first two years, offered $20,000 grants and other support for programmers working on major Rust features.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-17[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] In a `F33f`_`[blog`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Blog]`_`f post published on April 6, 2021, Google announced support for Rust within the `F33f`_`[Android Open Source Project`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Android_Open_Source_Project]`_`f as an alternative to C/C++.`:cite-ref-39[`F5bf`_`[34`#cite-note-39]`_`f]

On November 22, 2021, the Moderation Team, which was responsible for enforcing the community code of conduct, announced their resignation "in protest of the Core Team placing themselves unaccountable to anyone but themselves".`:cite-ref-moderation-40-0[`F5bf`_`[35`#cite-note-moderation-40]`_`f] In May 2022, the Rust Core Team, other lead programmers, and certain members of the Rust Foundation board implemented governance reforms in response to the incident.`:cite-ref-41[`F5bf`_`[36`#cite-note-41]`_`f]

The Rust Foundation posted a draft for a new trademark policy on April 6, 2023, including rules for how the Rust logo and name can be used, which resulted in negative reactions from Rust users and contributors.`:cite-ref-42[`F5bf`_`[37`#cite-note-42]`_`f]

On February 26, 2024, the U.S. `F33f`_`[White House`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=White_House]`_`f through the `F33f`_`[Office of the National Cyber Director`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Office_of_the_National_Cyber_Director]`_`f released a 19-page press report urging software development to move away from C and C++ and encouraging the use of memory-safe languages like C#, Go, Java, Ruby, Swift, and Rust.`:cite-ref-whitehouse1-43-0[`F5bf`_`[38`#cite-note-whitehouse1-43]`_`f]`:cite-ref-whitehouse2-44-0[`F5bf`_`[39`#cite-note-whitehouse2-44]`_`f]`:cite-ref-whitehousefullreport-45-0[`F5bf`_`[40`#cite-note-whitehousefullreport-45]`_`f] The report has been interpreted as increasing interest in Rust.`:cite-ref-whitehouse3-46-0[`F5bf`_`[41`#cite-note-whitehouse3-46]`_`f]`:cite-ref-whitehouse4-47-0[`F5bf`_`[42`#cite-note-whitehouse4-47]`_`f]

>>Syntax and features

Rust's `F33f`_`[syntax`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Syntax_(programming_languages)]`_`f is similar to that of `F33f`_`[C`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C_(programming_language)]`_`f and C++,`:cite-ref-48[`F5bf`_`[43`#cite-note-48]`_`f]`:cite-ref-4-49-0[`F5bf`_`[44`#cite-note-4-49]`_`f] although many of its features were influenced by `F33f`_`[functional programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Functional_programming]`_`f languages such as `F33f`_`[OCaml`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=OCaml]`_`f.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019263-50-0[`F5bf`_`[45`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019263-50]`_`f] Hoare has described Rust as targeted at frustrated C++ developers and emphasized features such as safety, control of `F33f`_`[memory layout`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Memory_layout]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[concurrency`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Concurrency_(computer_science)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-hoare2010-18-2[`F5bf`_`[15`#cite-note-hoare2010-18]`_`f] Safety in Rust includes the guarantees of memory safety, type safety, and lack of data races.

>>>Hello World program

Below is a `F33f`_`["Hello, World!" program`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path="Hello,_World!"_program]`_`f in Rust. The `B100`F9d9fn`f`b keyword denotes a `F33f`_`[function`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Function_(computer_programming)]`_`f, and the `B100`F9d9println!`f`b `F33f`_`[macro`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Macro_(computer_science)]`_`f (see `F33f`_`[§ Macros`#macros]`_`f) prints the message to `F33f`_`[standard output`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Standard_output]`_`f.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols20195-6-51-0[`F5bf`_`[46`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols20195-6-51]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Statements`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Statement_(computer_science)]`_`f in Rust are separated by `F33f`_`[semicolons`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Semicolon]`_`f.

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("Hello, World!");`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>Variables

`F33f`_`[Variables`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Variable_(computer_science)]`_`f in Rust are defined through the `B100`F9d9let`f`b keyword.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202332-52-0[`F5bf`_`[47`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202332-52]`_`f] The example below assigns a value to the variable with name `B100`F9d9foo`f`b and outputs its value.

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let foo: i32 = 10;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("The value of foo is {foo}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

Variables are `F33f`_`[immutable`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Immutable_object]`_`f by default, but adding the `B100`F9d9mut`f`b keyword allows the variable to be mutated.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202332-33-53-0[`F5bf`_`[48`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202332-33-53]`_`f] The following example uses `B100`F9d9//`f`b, which denotes the start of a `F33f`_`[comment`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Comment_(computer_programming)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202349-50-54-0[`F5bf`_`[49`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202349-50-54]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // This code would not compile without adding "mut".`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let mut foo: i32 = 10;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("The value of foo is {foo}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 foo = 20;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("The value of foo is {foo}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

Multiple `B100`F9d9let`f`b expressions can define multiple variables with the same name, known as `F33f`_`[variable shadowing`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Variable_shadowing]`_`f. Variable shadowing allows transforming variables without having to name the variables differently.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202334-36-55-0[`F5bf`_`[50`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202334-36-55]`_`f] The example below declares a new variable with the same name that is double the original value:

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let foo: i32 = 10;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // This will output "The value of foo is 10"`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("The value of foo is {foo}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let foo: i32 = foo * 2;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // This will output "The value of foo is 20"`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("The value of foo is {foo}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

Variable shadowing is also possible for values of different types. For example, going from a string to its length:

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let letters: str = "abc";`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let letters: usize = letters.len();`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>Block expressions and control flow

A `*block expression`* is delimited by `F33f`_`[curly brackets`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bracket]`_`f. When the last expression inside a block does not end with a semicolon, the block evaluates to the value of that trailing expression:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols20236-47-53-56-0[`F5bf`_`[51`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols20236-47-53-56]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let x: i32 = {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("this is inside the block");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 1 + 2`f`b

`B100`F9d9 };`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("1 + 2 = {x}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

Trailing expressions of function bodies are used as the return value:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202347-48-57-0[`F5bf`_`[52`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202347-48-57]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn add_two(x: i32) -> i32 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 x + 2`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>>if expressions

An `B100`F9d9if`f`b `F33f`_`[conditional expression`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Conditional_expression]`_`f executes code based on whether the given value is `B100`F9d9true`f`b. `B100`F9d9else`f`b can be used for when the value evaluates to `B100`F9d9false`f`b, and `B100`F9d9else if`f`b can be used for combining multiple expressions.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202350-53-58-0[`F5bf`_`[53`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202350-53-58]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let x: i32 = 10;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if x > 5 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("value is greater than five");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if x % 7 == 0 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("value is divisible by 7");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 } else if x % 5 == 0 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("value is divisible by 5");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 } else {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("value is not divisible by 7 or 5");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

`B100`F9d9if`f`b and `B100`F9d9else`f`b blocks can evaluate to a value, which can then be assigned to a variable:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202350-53-58-1[`F5bf`_`[53`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202350-53-58]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let x: i32 = 10;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let new_x: i32 = if x % 2 == 0 { x / 2 } else { 3 * x + 1 };`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("{new_x}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>>while loops

`B100`F9d9`F33f`_`[while`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=While_loop]`_`f`f`b can be used to repeat a block of code while a condition is met.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202356-59-0[`F5bf`_`[54`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202356-59]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // Iterate over all integers from 4 to 10`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let mut value: i32 = 4;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 while value <= 10 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("value = {value}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 value += 1;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>>for loops and iterators

`F33f`_`[For loops`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=For_loop]`_`f in Rust loop over elements of a collection.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202357-58-60-0[`F5bf`_`[55`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202357-58-60]`_`f] `B100`F9d9for`f`b expressions work over any `F33f`_`[iterator`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Iterator]`_`f type.

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // Using \`for\` with range syntax for the same functionality as above`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // The syntax 4..=10 means the range from 4 to 10, up to and including 10.`f`b

`B100`F9d9 for value in 4..=10 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("value = {value}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

In the above code, `B100`F9d94..=10`f`b is a value of type `B100`F9d9Range`f`b which implements the `B100`F9d9Iterator`f`b trait. The code within the curly braces is applied to each element returned by the iterator.

Iterators can be combined with functions over iterators like `B100`F9d9map`f`b, `B100`F9d9filter`f`b, and `B100`F9d9sum`f`b. For example, the following adds up all numbers between 1 and 100 that are multiples of 3:

`B100`F9d9(1..=100).filter(|&x| x % 3 == 0).sum()`f`b

>>>>loop and break statements

More generally, the `B100`F9d9loop`f`b keyword allows repeating a portion of code until a `B100`F9d9break`f`b occurs. `B100`F9d9break`f`b may optionally exit the loop with a value. In the case of nested loops, labels denoted by `B100`F9d9'label_name`f`b can be used to break an outer loop rather than the innermost loop.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202354-56-61-0[`F5bf`_`[56`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202354-56-61]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let value: i32 = 456;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let mut x: i32 = 1;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let y = loop {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 x *= 10;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if x > value {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 break x / 10;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9 };`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("largest power of ten that is smaller than or equal to value: {y}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let mut up: i32 = 1;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 'outer: loop {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let mut down: i32 = 120;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 loop {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if up > 100 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 break 'outer;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if down < 4 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 break;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9 down /= 2;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 up += 1;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("up: {up}, down: {down}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9 up *= 2;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>Pattern matching

The `B100`F9d9match`f`b and `B100`F9d9if let`f`b expressions can be used for `F33f`_`[pattern matching`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pattern_matching]`_`f. For example, `B100`F9d9match`f`b can be used to double an optional integer value if present, and return zero otherwise:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019104-109-62-0[`F5bf`_`[57`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019104-109-62]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn double(x: Option<u64>) -> u64 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 match x {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 Some(y) => y * 2,`f`b

`B100`F9d9 None => 0,`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

Equivalently, this can be written with `B100`F9d9if let`f`b and `B100`F9d9else`f`b:

`B100`F9d9fn double(x: Option<u64>) -> u64 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if let Some(y) = x {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 y * 2`f`b

`B100`F9d9 } else {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 0`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>Types

Rust is `F33f`_`[strongly typed`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Strongly_typed]`_`f and `F33f`_`[statically typed`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Statically_typed]`_`f, meaning that the types of all variables must be known at compilation time. Assigning a value of a particular type to a differently typed variable causes a `F33f`_`[compilation error`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Compilation_error]`_`f. `F33f`_`[Type inference`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Type_inference]`_`f is used to determine the type of variables if unspecified.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201924-63-0[`F5bf`_`[58`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201924-63]`_`f]

The default integer type is `B100`F9d9i32`f`b, and the default `F33f`_`[floating point`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Floating_point]`_`f type is `B100`F9d9f64`f`b. If the type of a `F33f`_`[literal`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Literal_(computer_programming)]`_`f number is not explicitly provided, it is either inferred from the context or the default type is used.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201936-38-64-0[`F5bf`_`[59`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201936-38-64]`_`f]

>>>>Primitive types

`F33f`_`[Integer types`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Integer_type]`_`f in Rust are named based on the `F33f`_`[signedness`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Signedness]`_`f and the number of bits the type takes. For example, `B100`F9d9i32`f`b is a signed integer that takes 32 bits of storage, whereas `B100`F9d9u8`f`b is unsigned and only takes 8 bits of storage. `B100`F9d9isize`f`b and `B100`F9d9usize`f`b take storage depending on the architecture of the computer that runs the code, for example, on computers with `F33f`_`[32-bit architectures`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=32-bit_architecture]`_`f, both types will take up 32 bits of space.

By default, integer literals are in base-10, but different `F33f`_`[radices`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Radix]`_`f are supported with prefixes, for example, `B100`F9d90b11`f`b for `F33f`_`[binary numbers`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Binary_number]`_`f, `B100`F9d90o567`f`b for `F33f`_`[octals`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Octal]`_`f, and `B100`F9d90xDB`f`b for `F33f`_`[hexadecimals`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hexadecimal]`_`f. By default, integer literals default to `B100`F9d9i32`f`b as its type. Suffixes such as `B100`F9d94u32`f`b can be used to explicitly set the type of a literal.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202336-38-65-0[`F5bf`_`[60`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202336-38-65]`_`f] Byte literals such as `B100`F9d9b'X'`f`b are available to represent the `F33f`_`[ASCII`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ASCII]`_`f value (as a `B100`F9d9u8`f`b) of a specific character.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023502-66-0[`F5bf`_`[61`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023502-66]`_`f]

The `F33f`_`[Boolean type`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Boolean_type]`_`f is referred to as `B100`F9d9bool`f`b which can take a value of either `B100`F9d9true`f`b or `B100`F9d9false`f`b. A `B100`F9d9char`f`b takes up 32 bits of space and represents a Unicode scalar value: a `F33f`_`[Unicode codepoint`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Unicode_codepoint]`_`f that is not a `F33f`_`[surrogate`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Universal_Character_Set_characters]`_`f.`:cite-ref-67[`F5bf`_`[62`#cite-note-67]`_`f] `F33f`_`[IEEE 754`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=IEEE_754]`_`f floating point numbers are supported with `B100`F9d9f32`f`b for `F33f`_`[single precision floats`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Single_precision_float]`_`f and `B100`F9d9f64`f`b for `F33f`_`[double precision floats`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Double_precision_float]`_`f.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201938-40-68-0[`F5bf`_`[63`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201938-40-68]`_`f]

>>>>Compound types

Compound types can contain multiple values. Tuples are fixed-size lists that can contain values whose types can be different. Arrays are fixed-size lists whose values are of the same type. Expressions of the tuple and array types can be written through listing the values, and can be accessed with `B100`F9d9.index`f`b or `B100`F9d9[index]`f`b:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202340-42-69-0[`F5bf`_`[64`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202340-42-69]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9let tuple: (u32, bool) = (3, true);`f`b

`B100`F9d9let array: [i8; 5] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];`f`b

`B100`F9d9let value: bool = tuple.1; // true`f`b

`B100`F9d9let value: i8 = array[2]; // 3`f`b

Arrays can also be constructed through copying a single value a number of times:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202342-70-0[`F5bf`_`[65`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202342-70]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9let array2: [char; 10] = [' '; 10];`f`b

>>>Ownership and references

Rust's ownership system consists of rules that ensure memory safety without using a garbage collector. At compile time, each value must be attached to a variable called the `*owner`* of that value, and every value must have exactly one owner.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201959-61-71-0[`F5bf`_`[66`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201959-61-71]`_`f] Values are moved between different owners through assignment or passing a value as a function parameter. Values can also be `*borrowed,`* meaning they are temporarily passed to a different function before being returned to the owner.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201963-68-72-0[`F5bf`_`[67`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201963-68-72]`_`f] With these rules, Rust can prevent the creation and use of `F33f`_`[dangling pointers`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dangling_pointers]`_`f:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201963-68-72-1[`F5bf`_`[67`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201963-68-72]`_`f]`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201974-75-73-0[`F5bf`_`[68`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201974-75-73]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn print_string(s: String) {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("{}", s);`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let s: String = String::from("Hello, World");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 print_string(s); // s consumed by print_string`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // s has been moved, so cannot be used any more`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // another print_string(s); would result in a compile error`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

The function `B100`F9d9print_string`f`b takes ownership over the `B100`F9d9String`f`b value passed in; Alternatively, `B100`F9d9&`f`b can be used to indicate a `F33f`_`[reference`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Reference_(computer_science)]`_`f type (in `B100`F9d9&String`f`b) and to create a reference (in `B100`F9d9&s`f`b):`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202371-72-74-0[`F5bf`_`[69`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202371-72-74]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn print_string(s: &String) {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("{}", s);`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let s: String = String::from("Hello, World");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 print_string(&s); // s borrowed by print_string`f`b

`B100`F9d9 print_string(&s); // s has not been consumed; we can call the function many times`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

Because of these ownership rules, Rust types are known as `*`F33f`_`[linear`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Linear_types]`_`f`* or `*affine`* types, meaning each value can be used exactly once. This enforces a form of `F33f`_`[software fault isolation`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Software_fault_isolation]`_`f as the owner of a value is solely responsible for its correctness and deallocation.`:cite-ref-beyondsafety-75-0[`F5bf`_`[70`#cite-note-beyondsafety-75]`_`f]

When a value goes out of scope, it is `*dropped`* by running its `F33f`_`[destructor`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Destructor_(computer_programming)]`_`f. The destructor may be programmatically defined through implementing the `B100`F9d9Drop`f`b `F33f`_`[trait`#traits]`_`f. This helps manage resources such as file handles, network sockets, and `F33f`_`[locks`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Lock_(computer_science)]`_`f, since when objects are dropped, the resources associated with them are closed or released automatically.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023327-30-76-0[`F5bf`_`[71`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023327-30-76]`_`f]

>>>>Lifetimes

`F33f`_`[Object lifetime`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Object_lifetime]`_`f refers to the period of time during which a reference is valid; that is, the time between the object creation and destruction.`:cite-ref-77[`F5bf`_`[72`#cite-note-77]`_`f] These `*lifetimes`* are implicitly associated with all Rust reference types. While often inferred, they can also be indicated explicitly with named lifetime parameters (often denoted `B100`F9d9'a`f`b, `B100`F9d9'b`f`b, and so on).`:cite-ref-78[`F5bf`_`[73`#cite-note-78]`_`f]

Lifetimes in Rust can be thought of as `F33f`_`[lexically scoped`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Scope_(computer_science)]`_`f, meaning that the duration of an object lifetime is inferred from the set of locations in the source code (i.e., function, line, and column numbers) for which a variable is valid.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019194-79-0[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019194-79]`_`f] For example, a reference to a local variable has a lifetime corresponding to the block it is defined in:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019194-79-1[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019194-79]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let x: i32 = 5; // ------------------+- Lifetime 'a`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let r: &i32 = &x; // -+-- Lifetime 'b |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // | |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("r: {}", r); // | |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // | |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // -+ |`f`b

`B100`F9d9} // ------------------+`f`b

The borrow checker in the Rust compiler then enforces that references are only used in the locations of the source code where the associated lifetime is valid.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201975-134-80-0[`F5bf`_`[75`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201975-134-80]`_`f]`:cite-ref-81[`F5bf`_`[76`#cite-note-81]`_`f] In the example above, storing a reference to variable `B100`F9d9x`f`b in `B100`F9d9r`f`b is valid, as variable `B100`F9d9x`f`b has a longer lifetime (`B100`F9d9'a`f`b) than variable `B100`F9d9r`f`b (`B100`F9d9'b`f`b). However, when `B100`F9d9x`f`b has a shorter lifetime, the borrow checker would reject the program:

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let r: &i32; // ------------------+- Lifetime 'a`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 { // |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let x: i32 = 5; // -+-- Lifetime 'b |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 r = &x; // ERROR: x does | |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 } // not live long -| |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // enough |`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("r: {}", r); // |`f`b

`B100`F9d9} // ------------------+`f`b

Since the lifetime of the referenced variable (`B100`F9d9'b`f`b) is shorter than the lifetime of the variable holding the reference (`B100`F9d9'a`f`b), the borrow checker errors, preventing `B100`F9d9x`f`b from being used from outside its scope.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019194-195-82-0[`F5bf`_`[77`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019194-195-82]`_`f]

Lifetimes can be indicated using explicit `*lifetime parameters`* on function arguments. For example, the following code specifies that the reference returned by the function has the same lifetime as `B100`F9d9original`f`b (and `*not`* necessarily the same lifetime as `B100`F9d9prefix`f`b):`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023208-12-83-0[`F5bf`_`[78`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023208-12-83]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn remove_prefix<'a>(mut original: &'a str, prefix: &str) -> &'a str {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if original.starts_with(prefix) {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 original = original[prefix.len()..];`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9 original`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

In the compiler, ownership and lifetimes work together to prevent memory safety issues such as dangling pointers.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023-httpsdocrust-langorgbookch04-02-references-and-borrowinghtml-4-2-references-and-borrowing-84-0[`F5bf`_`[79`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023-httpsdocrust-langorgbookch04-02-references-and-borrowinghtml-4-2-references-and-borrowing-84]`_`f]`:cite-ref-pearce-85-0[`F5bf`_`[80`#cite-note-pearce-85]`_`f]

>>>User-defined types

User-defined types are created with the `B100`F9d9struct`f`b or `B100`F9d9enum`f`b keywords. The `B100`F9d9struct`f`b keyword is used to denote a `F33f`_`[record type`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Record_(computer_science)]`_`f that groups multiple related values.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201983-86-0[`F5bf`_`[81`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201983-86]`_`f] `B100`F9d9enum`f`bs can take on different variants at runtime, with its capabilities similar to `F33f`_`[algebraic data types`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Algebraic_data_types]`_`f found in functional programming languages.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201997-87-0[`F5bf`_`[82`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201997-87]`_`f] Both records and enum variants can contain `F33f`_`[fields`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Field_(computer_science)]`_`f with different types.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201998-101-88-0[`F5bf`_`[83`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201998-101-88]`_`f] Alternative names, or aliases, for the same type can be defined with the `B100`F9d9type`f`b keyword.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019438-440-89-0[`F5bf`_`[84`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019438-440-89]`_`f]

The `B100`F9d9impl`f`b keyword can define methods for a user-defined type. Data and functions are defined separately. Implementations fulfill a role similar to that of `F33f`_`[classes`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Class_(computer_programming)]`_`f within other languages.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201993-90-0[`F5bf`_`[85`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201993-90]`_`f]

>>>>Standard library

The Rust `F33f`_`[standard library`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Standard_library]`_`f defines and implements many widely used custom data types, including core data structures such as `B100`F9d9Vec`f`b, `B100`F9d9Option`f`b, and `B100`F9d9HashMap`f`b, as well as `F33f`_`[smart pointer`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Smart_pointer]`_`f types. Rust also provides a way to exclude most of the standard library using the attribute `B100`F9d9#![no_std]`f`b, for applications such as embedded devices. Internally, the standard library is divided into three parts, `B100`F9d9core`f`b, `B100`F9d9alloc`f`b, and `B100`F9d9std`f`b, where `B100`F9d9std`f`b and `B100`F9d9alloc`f`b are excluded by `B100`F9d9#![no_std]`f`b.`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset2021213-215-91-0[`F5bf`_`[86`#cite-note-footnotegjengset2021213-215-91]`_`f]

Rust uses `F33f`_`[Option`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Option_type]`_`f to define optional values, which can be matched using `B100`F9d9if let`f`b or `B100`F9d9match`f`b to access the inner value:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023108-110-113-114-116-117-92-0[`F5bf`_`[87`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023108-110-113-114-116-117-92]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let name1: Option<&str> = None;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // In this case, nothing will be printed out`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if let Some(name) = name1 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("{name}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let name2: Option<&str> = Some("Matthew");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 // In this case, the word "Matthew" will be printed out`f`b

`B100`F9d9 if let Some(name) = name2 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("{name}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>Pointers

The `B100`F9d9&`f`b and `B100`F9d9&mut`f`b reference types are guaranteed to not be null and point to valid memory.`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset2021155-156-93-0[`F5bf`_`[88`#cite-note-footnotegjengset2021155-156-93]`_`f] The raw pointer types `B100`F9d9*const`f`b and `B100`F9d9*mut`f`b opt out of the safety guarantees, thus they may be null or invalid; however, it is impossible to dereference them unless the code is explicitly declared unsafe through the use of an `B100`F9d9unsafe`f`b block.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023421-423-94-0[`F5bf`_`[89`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023421-423-94]`_`f] Unlike dereferencing, the creation of raw pointers is allowed inside safe Rust code.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019418-427-95-0[`F5bf`_`[90`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019418-427-95]`_`f]

>>>Type conversion

Rust provides no implicit type conversion (coercion) between most primitive types. But, explicit type conversion (casting) can be performed using the `B100`F9d9as`f`b keyword.`:cite-ref-96[`F5bf`_`[91`#cite-note-96]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9let x: i32 = 1000;`f`b

`B100`F9d9println!("1000 as a u16 is: {}", x as u16);`f`b

>>>Polymorphism

Rust supports `F33f`_`[bounded parametric polymorphism`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bounded_parametric_polymorphism]`_`f through `F33f`_`[traits`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Trait_(computer_programming)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[generic functions`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Generic_function]`_`f.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023378-97-0[`F5bf`_`[92`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023378-97]`_`f] Common behavior between types may be declared using traits and `B100`F9d9impl`f`bs:`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023192-198-98-0[`F5bf`_`[93`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023192-198-98]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9trait Zero: Sized {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 fn zero() -> Self;`f`b

`B100`F9d9 fn is_zero(&self) -> bool`f`b

`B100`F9d9 where`f`b

`B100`F9d9 Self: PartialEq,`f`b

`B100`F9d9 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 self == &Zero::zero()`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9impl Zero for u32 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 fn zero() -> u32 { 0 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9impl Zero for f32 {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 fn zero() -> Self { 0.0 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

The example above also includes a method `B100`F9d9is_zero`f`b which provides a default implementation that is not required when implementing the trait.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023192-198-98-1[`F5bf`_`[93`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023192-198-98]`_`f]

A function can then be made generic by adding type parameters inside angle brackets (`B100`F9d9<Num>`f`b), which only allow types that implement the trait:

`B100`F9d9// zero is a generic function with one type parameter, Num`f`b

`B100`F9d9fn zero<Num: Zero>() -> Num {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 Num::zero()`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let a: u32 = zero();`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let b: f32 = zero();`f`b

`B100`F9d9 assert!(a.is_zero() && b.is_zero());`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

In the examples above, `B100`F9d9Num: Zero`f`b as well as `B100`F9d9where Self: PartialEq`f`b are trait bounds that constrain the type to only allow types that implement `B100`F9d9Zero`f`b or `B100`F9d9PartialEq`f`b.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023192-198-98-2[`F5bf`_`[93`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023192-198-98]`_`f] Within a trait or impl, `B100`F9d9Self`f`b refers to the type that the code is implementing.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols202398-99-0[`F5bf`_`[94`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols202398-99]`_`f]

Generics can be used in functions to allow implementing a behavior for different types without repeating the same code. Generic functions can be written in relation to other generics, without knowing the actual type.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019171-172-205-100-0[`F5bf`_`[95`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019171-172-205-100]`_`f]

>>>>Trait objects

Generic functions use `F33f`_`[static dispatch`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Static_dispatch]`_`f, meaning that the type of all parameters that end up being used for the function must be known at compile time. Generic functions generate separate copies of the code for each combination of generic parameters used in a process called `F33f`_`[monomorphization`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Monomorphization]`_`f.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023191-192-101-0[`F5bf`_`[96`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023191-192-101]`_`f] Because monomorphization duplicates the code for each type used, it is as performant as writing functions using concrete types,`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023191-192-101-1[`F5bf`_`[96`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023191-192-101]`_`f] but compile time and size of the output binary could be increased.`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset202125-102-0[`F5bf`_`[97`#cite-note-footnotegjengset202125-102]`_`f]

however, Rust also uses a feature known as `*trait objects`* to accomplish `F33f`_`[dynamic dispatch`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dynamic_dispatch]`_`f, a type of polymorphism where the implementation of a polymorphic operation is chosen at `F33f`_`[runtime`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Runtime_(program_lifecycle_phase)]`_`f. This allows for behavior similar to `F33f`_`[duck typing`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Duck_typing]`_`f, where all data types that implement a given trait can be treated as functionally equivalent.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023-httpsdocrust-langorgbookch18-02-trait-objectshtml-18-2-using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types-103-0[`F5bf`_`[98`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023-httpsdocrust-langorgbookch18-02-trait-objectshtml-18-2-using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types-103]`_`f] Trait objects are declared using the syntax `B100`F9d9dyn Tr`f`b where `B100`F9d9Tr`f`b is a trait. Trait objects are dynamically sized, therefore they must be put behind a pointer, such as `B100`F9d9Box`f`b.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019441-442-104-0[`F5bf`_`[99`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019441-442-104]`_`f] The following example creates a list of objects where each object can be printed out using the `B100`F9d9Display`f`b trait:

`B100`F9d9use std::fmt::Display;`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9let v: Vec<Box<dyn Display>> = vec![`f`b

`B100`F9d9 Box::new(3),`f`b

`B100`F9d9 Box::new(5.0),`f`b

`B100`F9d9 Box::new("hi"),`f`b

`B100`F9d9];`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9for x in v {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("{x}");`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

If an element in the list does not implement the `B100`F9d9Display`f`b trait, it will cause a compile-time error.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019379-380-105-0[`F5bf`_`[100`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019379-380-105]`_`f]

>>>Memory safety

Rust is designed to be `F33f`_`[memory safe`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Memory_safe]`_`f. It does not permit null pointers, `F33f`_`[dangling pointers`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dangling_pointer]`_`f, or `F33f`_`[data races`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Data_race]`_`f.`:cite-ref-cnet-106-0[`F5bf`_`[101`#cite-note-cnet-106]`_`f]`:cite-ref-lwn-107-0[`F5bf`_`[102`#cite-note-lwn-107]`_`f]`:cite-ref-the-rustonomicon-108-0[`F5bf`_`[103`#cite-note-the-rustonomicon-108]`_`f]`:cite-ref-sensors-109-0[`F5bf`_`[104`#cite-note-sensors-109]`_`f] Data values can be initialized only through a fixed set of forms, all of which require their inputs to be already initialized.`:cite-ref-lang-faq-110-0[`F5bf`_`[105`#cite-note-lang-faq-110]`_`f]

>>>Memory management

Rust does not use `F33f`_`[garbage collection`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Garbage_collection_(computer_science)]`_`f. Memory and other resources are instead managed through the "resource acquisition is initialization" convention,`:cite-ref-111[`F5bf`_`[106`#cite-note-111]`_`f] with optional `F33f`_`[reference counting`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Reference_counting]`_`f. Rust provides deterministic management of resources, with very low `F33f`_`[overhead`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Overhead_(computing)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-112[`F5bf`_`[107`#cite-note-112]`_`f] Values are `F33f`_`[allocated on the stack`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Stack-based_memory_allocation]`_`f by default, and all `F33f`_`[dynamic allocations`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dynamic_allocation]`_`f must be explicit.`:cite-ref-113[`F5bf`_`[108`#cite-note-113]`_`f]

The built-in reference types using the `B100`F9d9&`f`b symbol do not involve run-time reference counting. The safety and validity of the underlying pointers is verified at compile time, preventing `F33f`_`[dangling pointers`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dangling_pointers]`_`f and other forms of `F33f`_`[undefined behavior`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Undefined_behavior]`_`f.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols201970-75-114-0[`F5bf`_`[109`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols201970-75-114]`_`f] Rust's type system separates shared, `F33f`_`[immutable`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Immutable_object]`_`f references of the form `B100`F9d9&T`f`b from unique, mutable references of the form `B100`F9d9&mut T`f`b. A mutable reference can be coerced to an immutable reference, but not vice versa.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019323-115-0[`F5bf`_`[110`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019323-115]`_`f]

>>>Unsafe

Rust's memory safety checks may be circumvented through the use of `B100`F9d9unsafe`f`b blocks. This allows programmers to deference arbitrary raw pointers, call external code, or perform other low-level functionality not allowed by safe Rust.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023420-429-116-0[`F5bf`_`[111`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023420-429-116]`_`f] Some low-level functionality enabled in this way includes `F33f`_`[volatile memory access`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Volatile_(computer_programming)]`_`f, architecture-specific intrinsics, `F33f`_`[type punning`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Type_punning]`_`f, and inline assembly.`:cite-ref-footnotemcnamara2021139-376-379-395-117-0[`F5bf`_`[112`#cite-note-footnotemcnamara2021139-376-379-395-117]`_`f]

Unsafe code is sometimes needed to implement complex data structures.`:cite-ref-unsaferustuse-118-0[`F5bf`_`[113`#cite-note-unsaferustuse-118]`_`f] A frequently cited example is that it is difficult or impossible to implement `F33f`_`[doubly linked lists`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Doubly_linked_list]`_`f in safe Rust.`:cite-ref-119[`F5bf`_`[114`#cite-note-119]`_`f]`:cite-ref-120[`F5bf`_`[115`#cite-note-120]`_`f]`:cite-ref-121[`F5bf`_`[116`#cite-note-121]`_`f]`:cite-ref-122[`F5bf`_`[117`#cite-note-122]`_`f]

Programmers using unsafe Rust are considered responsible for upholding Rust's memory and type safety requirements, for example, that no two mutable references exist pointing to the same location.`:cite-ref-isrustsafely-123-0[`F5bf`_`[118`#cite-note-isrustsafely-123]`_`f] If programmers write code which violates these requirements, this results in `F33f`_`[undefined behavior`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Undefined_behavior]`_`f.`:cite-ref-isrustsafely-123-1[`F5bf`_`[118`#cite-note-isrustsafely-123]`_`f] The Rust documentation includes a list of behavior considered undefined, including accessing dangling or misaligned pointers, or breaking the aliasing rules for references.`:cite-ref-124[`F5bf`_`[119`#cite-note-124]`_`f]

>>>Macros

Macros allow generation and transformation of Rust code to reduce repetition. Macros come in two forms, with `*declarative macros`* defined through `B100`F9d9macro_rules!`f`b, and `*procedural macros`*, which are defined in separate crates.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023449-455-125-0[`F5bf`_`[120`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023449-455-125]`_`f]`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset2021101-102-126-0[`F5bf`_`[121`#cite-note-footnotegjengset2021101-102-126]`_`f]

>>>>Declarative macros

A declarative macro (also called a "macro by example") is a macro, defined using the `B100`F9d9macro_rules!`f`b keyword, that uses pattern matching to determine its expansion.`:cite-ref-rust-ref-macros-by-example-127-0[`F5bf`_`[122`#cite-note-rust-ref-macros-by-example-127]`_`f]`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019446-448-128-0[`F5bf`_`[123`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019446-448-128]`_`f] Below is an example that sums over all its arguments:

`B100`F9d9macro_rules! sum {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 ( $initial:expr $(, $expr:expr )* $(,)? ) => {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 $initial $(+ $expr)*`f`b

`B100`F9d9 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

`B100`F9d9`f`b

`B100`F9d9fn main() {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 let x: i32 = sum!(1, 2, 3);`f`b

`B100`F9d9 println!("{x}"); // prints 6`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

>>>>Procedural macros

Procedural macros are Rust functions that run and modify the compiler's input `F33f`_`[token`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Token_(parser)]`_`f stream, before any other components are compiled. They are generally more flexible than declarative macros, but are more difficult to maintain due to their complexity.`:cite-ref-rust-procedural-macros-129-0[`F5bf`_`[124`#cite-note-rust-procedural-macros-129]`_`f]`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019449-455-130-0[`F5bf`_`[125`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019449-455-130]`_`f]

Procedural macros come in three flavors:

• Function-like macros `B100`F9d9custom!(...)`f`b

• Derive macros `B100`F9d9#[derive(CustomDerive)]`f`b

• Attribute macros `B100`F9d9#[custom_attribute]`f`b

>>>Interface with C and C++

Rust supports the creation of `F33f`_`[foreign function interfaces`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Foreign_function_interface]`_`f (FFI) through the `B100`F9d9extern`f`b keyword. A function that uses the C `F33f`_`[calling convention`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Calling_convention]`_`f can be written using `B100`F9d9extern "C" fn`f`b. Symbols can be exported from Rust to other languages through the `B100`F9d9#[no_mangle]`f`b attribute, and symbols can be imported into Rust through `B100`F9d9extern`f`b blocks:`:cite-ref-132[`F5bf`_`[note 6`#cite-note-132]`_`f]`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset2021193-209-133-0[`F5bf`_`[127`#cite-note-footnotegjengset2021193-209-133]`_`f]

`B100`F9d9#[unsafe(no_mangle)]`f`b

`B100`F9d9pub extern "C" fn exported_from_rust(x: i32) -> i32 { x + 1 }`f`b

`B100`F9d9unsafe extern "C" {`f`b

`B100`F9d9 fn imported_into_rust(x: i32) -> i32;`f`b

`B100`F9d9}`f`b

The `B100`F9d9#[repr(C)]`f`b attribute enables deterministic memory layouts for `B100`F9d9struct`f`bs and `B100`F9d9enum`f`bs for use across FFI boundaries.`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset2021193-209-133-1[`F5bf`_`[127`#cite-note-footnotegjengset2021193-209-133]`_`f] External libraries such as `B100`F9d9bindgen`f`b and `B100`F9d9cxx`f`b can generate Rust bindings for C/C++.`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset2021193-209-133-2[`F5bf`_`[127`#cite-note-footnotegjengset2021193-209-133]`_`f]`:cite-ref-134[`F5bf`_`[128`#cite-note-134]`_`f]

>>Ecosystem

The Rust ecosystem includes its compiler, its `F33f`_`[standard library`#standard-library]`_`f, and additional components for software development. Component installation is typically managed by `B100`F9d9rustup`f`b, a Rust `F33f`_`[toolchain`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Toolchain]`_`f installer developed by the Rust project.`:cite-ref-footnoteblandyorendorfftindall20216-8-135-0[`F5bf`_`[129`#cite-note-footnoteblandyorendorfftindall20216-8-135]`_`f]

>>>Compiler

The Rust compiler, `B100`F9d9rustc`f`b, translates Rust code into low-level LLVM `F33f`_`[IR`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Intermediate_representation]`_`f. LLVM is then invoked as a subcomponent to apply `F33f`_`[optimizations`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Optimizing_compiler]`_`f and translate the resulting IR into `F33f`_`[object code`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Object_code]`_`f. A `F33f`_`[linker`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Linker_(computing)]`_`f is then used to combine the objects into a single executable image or binary file.`:cite-ref-136[`F5bf`_`[130`#cite-note-136]`_`f]

Other than LLVM, the compiler also supports using alternative backends such as `F33f`_`[GCC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GNU_Compiler_Collection]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Cranelift`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cranelift]`_`f for code generation.`:cite-ref-137[`F5bf`_`[131`#cite-note-137]`_`f] The intention of those alternative backends is to increase platform coverage of Rust or to improve compilation times.`:cite-ref-138[`F5bf`_`[132`#cite-note-138]`_`f]`:cite-ref-139[`F5bf`_`[133`#cite-note-139]`_`f]

>>>Cargo

Cargo is Rust's `F33f`_`[build system`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Build_system_(software_development)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[package manager`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Package_manager]`_`f. It downloads, compiles, distributes, and uploads packages—called `*crates`*—that are maintained in an official registry. It also acts as a front-end for Clippy and other Rust components.`:cite-ref-nature-140-0[`F5bf`_`[134`#cite-note-nature-140]`_`f]

By default, Cargo sources its dependencies from the user-contributed registry `*crates.io`*, but `F33f`_`[Git`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Git]`_`f repositories, crates in the local filesystem, and other external sources can also be specified as dependencies.`:cite-ref-141[`F5bf`_`[135`#cite-note-141]`_`f]

>>>Rustfmt

Rustfmt is a `F33f`_`[code formatter`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Code_formatter]`_`f for Rust. It formats whitespace and `F33f`_`[indentation`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indentation_style]`_`f to produce code in accordance with a common `F33f`_`[style`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Programming_style]`_`f, unless otherwise specified. It can be invoked as a standalone program, or from a Rust project through Cargo.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2019511-512-142-0[`F5bf`_`[136`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2019511-512-142]`_`f]

>>>Clippy

Clippy is Rust's built-in `F33f`_`[linting`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Linting]`_`f tool to improve the correctness, performance, and readability of Rust code. As of 2024, it has more than 700 rules.`:cite-ref-143[`F5bf`_`[137`#cite-note-143]`_`f]`:cite-ref-144[`F5bf`_`[138`#cite-note-144]`_`f]

>>>Versioning system

Following Rust 1.0, new features are developed in `*nightly`* versions which are released daily. During each six-week release cycle, changes to nightly versions are released to beta, while changes from the previous beta version are released to a new stable version.`:cite-ref-rust-book-g-145-0[`F5bf`_`[139`#cite-note-rust-book-g-145]`_`f]

Every two or three years, a new "edition" is produced. Editions are released to allow making limited `F33f`_`[breaking changes`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Breaking_changes]`_`f, such as promoting `B100`F9d9await`f`b to a keyword to support `F33f`_`[async/await`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Async/await]`_`f features. Crates targeting different editions can interoperate with each other, so a crate can upgrade to a new edition even if its callers or its dependencies still target older editions. Migration to a new edition can be assisted with automated tooling.`:cite-ref-footnoteblandyorendorfftindall2021176-177-146-0[`F5bf`_`[140`#cite-note-footnoteblandyorendorfftindall2021176-177-146]`_`f]

>>>IDE support

`*rust-analyzer`* is a set of `F33f`_`[utilities`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Utility_software]`_`f that provides `F33f`_`[integrated development environments`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Integrated_development_environment]`_`f (IDEs) and `F33f`_`[text editors`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Text_editor]`_`f with information about a Rust project through the `F33f`_`[Language Server Protocol`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Language_Server_Protocol]`_`f. This enables features including `F33f`_`[autocomplete`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Autocomplete]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[compilation error`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Compilation_error]`_`f display, while editing code.`:cite-ref-footnoteklabniknichols2023623-147-0[`F5bf`_`[141`#cite-note-footnoteklabniknichols2023623-147]`_`f]

>>Performance

Since it performs no garbage collection, Rust is often faster than other memory-safe languages.`:cite-ref-148[`F5bf`_`[142`#cite-note-148]`_`f]`:cite-ref-beyondsafety-75-1[`F5bf`_`[70`#cite-note-beyondsafety-75]`_`f]`:cite-ref-149[`F5bf`_`[143`#cite-note-149]`_`f] Most of Rust's memory safety guarantees impose no runtime overhead,`:cite-ref-footnotemcnamara202111-150-0[`F5bf`_`[144`#cite-note-footnotemcnamara202111-150]`_`f] with the exception of `F33f`_`[array indexing`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Array_(data_structure)]`_`f which is checked at runtime by default.`:cite-ref-saferatanyspeed-151-0[`F5bf`_`[145`#cite-note-saferatanyspeed-151]`_`f] The performance impact of array indexing bounds checks varies, but can be significant in some cases.`:cite-ref-saferatanyspeed-151-1[`F5bf`_`[145`#cite-note-saferatanyspeed-151]`_`f]

Many of Rust's features are so-called `*zero-cost abstractions`*, meaning they are optimized away at compile time and incur no runtime penalty.`:cite-ref-footnotemcnamara202119-27-152-0[`F5bf`_`[146`#cite-note-footnotemcnamara202119-27-152]`_`f] The ownership and borrowing system permits `F33f`_`[zero-copy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Zero-copy]`_`f implementations for some performance-sensitive tasks, such as `F33f`_`[parsing`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Parsing]`_`f.`:cite-ref-153[`F5bf`_`[147`#cite-note-153]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Static dispatch`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Static_dispatch]`_`f is used by default to eliminate `F33f`_`[method calls`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Method_call]`_`f, except for methods called on dynamic trait objects.`:cite-ref-footnotemcnamara202120-154-0[`F5bf`_`[148`#cite-note-footnotemcnamara202120-154]`_`f] The compiler also uses `F33f`_`[inline expansion`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Inline_expansion]`_`f to eliminate `F33f`_`[function calls`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Function_call]`_`f and statically-dispatched method invocations.`:cite-ref-155[`F5bf`_`[149`#cite-note-155]`_`f]

Since Rust uses `F33f`_`[LLVM`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=LLVM]`_`f, all performance improvements in LLVM apply to Rust also.`:cite-ref-how-fast-is-rust-156-0[`F5bf`_`[150`#cite-note-how-fast-is-rust-156]`_`f] Unlike C and C++, Rust allows for reordering struct and enum elements`:cite-ref-157[`F5bf`_`[151`#cite-note-157]`_`f] to reduce the sizes of structures in memory, for better memory alignment and efficiency.`:cite-ref-footnotegjengset202122-158-0[`F5bf`_`[152`#cite-note-footnotegjengset202122-158]`_`f]

>>Adoption

Rust is used in software across different domains. Components from the Servo browser engine (funded by `F33f`_`[Mozilla`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mozilla]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Samsung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Samsung]`_`f) were incorporated in the `F33f`_`[Gecko`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gecko_(software)]`_`f browser engine underlying `F33f`_`[Firefox`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Firefox]`_`f.`:cite-ref-159[`F5bf`_`[153`#cite-note-159]`_`f] In January 2023, Google (`F33f`_`[Alphabet`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Alphabet_Inc.]`_`f) announced support for using third party Rust libraries in `F33f`_`[Chromium`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Chromium_(web_browser)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-160[`F5bf`_`[154`#cite-note-160]`_`f]`:cite-ref-161[`F5bf`_`[155`#cite-note-161]`_`f]

Rust is used in several `F33f`_`[backend`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Frontend_and_backend]`_`f software projects of large `F33f`_`[web services`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Web_service]`_`f. `F33f`_`[OpenDNS`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=OpenDNS]`_`f, a `F33f`_`[DNS`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Domain_Name_System]`_`f resolution service owned by `F33f`_`[Cisco`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cisco]`_`f, uses Rust internally.`:cite-ref-162[`F5bf`_`[156`#cite-note-162]`_`f]`:cite-ref-163[`F5bf`_`[157`#cite-note-163]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Amazon Web Services`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Amazon_Web_Services]`_`f uses Rust in "performance-sensitive components" of its several services. In 2019, AWS `F33f`_`[open-sourced`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Open_sourced]`_`f `F33f`_`[Firecracker`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Firecracker_(software)]`_`f, a virtualization solution primarily written in Rust.`:cite-ref-164[`F5bf`_`[158`#cite-note-164]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Microsoft Azure`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Microsoft_Azure]`_`f IoT Edge, a platform used to run Azure services on `F33f`_`[IoT`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Internet_of_things]`_`f devices, has components implemented in Rust.`:cite-ref-165[`F5bf`_`[159`#cite-note-165]`_`f] Microsoft also uses Rust to run containerized modules with `F33f`_`[WebAssembly`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=WebAssembly]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Kubernetes`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Kubernetes]`_`f.`:cite-ref-166[`F5bf`_`[160`#cite-note-166]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Cloudflare`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cloudflare]`_`f, a company providing `F33f`_`[content delivery network`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Content_delivery_network]`_`f services, used Rust to build a new `F33f`_`[web proxy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Web_proxy]`_`f named Pingora for increased performance and efficiency.`:cite-ref-167[`F5bf`_`[161`#cite-note-167]`_`f] The `F33f`_`[npm package manager`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Npm]`_`f used Rust for its production authentication service in 2019.`:cite-ref-168[`F5bf`_`[162`#cite-note-168]`_`f]`:cite-ref-169[`F5bf`_`[163`#cite-note-169]`_`f]`:cite-ref-170[`F5bf`_`[164`#cite-note-170]`_`f]

In operating systems, the `F33f`_`[Rust for Linux`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Rust_for_Linux]`_`f project, launched in 2020, merged initial support into the `F33f`_`[Linux kernel`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Linux_kernel]`_`f version 6.1 in late 2022.`:cite-ref-usenixrustforlinux-171-0[`F5bf`_`[165`#cite-note-usenixrustforlinux-171]`_`f]`:cite-ref-172[`F5bf`_`[166`#cite-note-172]`_`f]`:cite-ref-173[`F5bf`_`[167`#cite-note-173]`_`f] The project is active with a team of 6–7 developers, and has added more Rust code with kernel releases from 2022 to 2024,`:cite-ref-174[`F5bf`_`[168`#cite-note-174]`_`f] aiming to demonstrate the `F33f`_`[minimum viability`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Minimum_viable_product]`_`f of the project and resolve key compatibility blockers.`:cite-ref-usenixrustforlinux-171-1[`F5bf`_`[165`#cite-note-usenixrustforlinux-171]`_`f]`:cite-ref-175[`F5bf`_`[169`#cite-note-175]`_`f] The first drivers written in Rust were merged into the kernel for version 6.8.`:cite-ref-usenixrustforlinux-171-2[`F5bf`_`[165`#cite-note-usenixrustforlinux-171]`_`f] The `F33f`_`[Android`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Android_(operating_system)]`_`f developers used Rust in 2021 to rewrite existing components.`:cite-ref-176[`F5bf`_`[170`#cite-note-176]`_`f]`:cite-ref-177[`F5bf`_`[171`#cite-note-177]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Microsoft`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Microsoft]`_`f has rewritten parts of `F33f`_`[Windows`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Windows]`_`f in Rust.`:cite-ref-178[`F5bf`_`[172`#cite-note-178]`_`f] The r9 project aims to re-implement `F33f`_`[Plan 9 from Bell Labs`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs]`_`f in Rust.`:cite-ref-179[`F5bf`_`[173`#cite-note-179]`_`f] Rust has been used in the development of new operating systems such as `F33f`_`[Redox`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Redox_(operating_system)]`_`f, a "Unix-like" operating system and `F33f`_`[microkernel`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Microkernel]`_`f,`:cite-ref-180[`F5bf`_`[174`#cite-note-180]`_`f] Theseus, an experimental operating system with modular state management,`:cite-ref-181[`F5bf`_`[175`#cite-note-181]`_`f]`:cite-ref-182[`F5bf`_`[176`#cite-note-182]`_`f] and most of `F33f`_`[Fuchsia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Fuchsia_(operating_system)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-rustmag-1-183-0[`F5bf`_`[177`#cite-note-rustmag-1-183]`_`f] Rust is also used for command-line tools and operating system components, including `F33f`_`[stratisd`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Stratis_(configuration_daemon)]`_`f, a `F33f`_`[file system`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=File_system]`_`f manager`:cite-ref-184[`F5bf`_`[178`#cite-note-184]`_`f]`:cite-ref-185[`F5bf`_`[179`#cite-note-185]`_`f] and COSMIC, a `F33f`_`[desktop environment`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Desktop_environment]`_`f by `F33f`_`[System76`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=System76]`_`f.`:cite-ref-186[`F5bf`_`[180`#cite-note-186]`_`f]

In web development, `F33f`_`[Deno`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Deno_(software)]`_`f, a secure runtime for `F33f`_`[JavaScript`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=JavaScript]`_`f and `F33f`_`[TypeScript`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=TypeScript]`_`f, is built on top of `F33f`_`[V8`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=V8_(JavaScript_engine)]`_`f using Rust and Tokio.`:cite-ref-187[`F5bf`_`[181`#cite-note-187]`_`f] Other notable adoptions in this space include `F33f`_`[Ruffle`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ruffle_(software)]`_`f, an open-source `F33f`_`[SWF`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=SWF]`_`f emulator,`:cite-ref-188[`F5bf`_`[182`#cite-note-188]`_`f] and `F33f`_`[Polkadot`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Polkadot_(cryptocurrency)]`_`f, an open source `F33f`_`[blockchain`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Blockchain]`_`f and `F33f`_`[cryptocurrency`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cryptocurrency]`_`f platform.`:cite-ref-189[`F5bf`_`[183`#cite-note-189]`_`f]

`F33f`_`[Discord`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Discord]`_`f, an `F33f`_`[instant messaging`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Instant_messaging]`_`f software company, rewrote parts of its system in Rust for increased performance in 2020. In the same year, Dropbox announced that its `F33f`_`[file synchronization`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=File_synchronization]`_`f had been rewritten in Rust. `F33f`_`[Facebook`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Facebook]`_`f (`F33f`_`[Meta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Meta_Platforms]`_`f) used Rust to redesign its system that manages source code for internal projects.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-18[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f]

In the 2025 `F33f`_`[Stack Overflow`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Stack_Overflow]`_`f Developer Survey, 14.8% of respondents had recently done extensive development in Rust.`:cite-ref-so-2025-survey-190-0[`F5bf`_`[184`#cite-note-so-2025-survey-190]`_`f] The survey named Rust the "most admired programming language" annually from 2016 to 2025 (inclusive), as measured by the number of existing developers interested in continuing to work in the language.`:cite-ref-191[`F5bf`_`[185`#cite-note-191]`_`f]`:cite-ref-192[`F5bf`_`[note 7`#cite-note-192]`_`f] In 2025, 29.2% of developers not currently working in Rust expressed an interest in doing so.`:cite-ref-so-2025-survey-190-2[`F5bf`_`[184`#cite-note-so-2025-survey-190]`_`f]

`F33f`_`[DARPA`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=DARPA]`_`f has a project TRACTOR (Translating All C to Rust) automatically translating C to Rust using techniques such as static analysis, dynamic analysis, and large language models.`:cite-ref-193[`F5bf`_`[186`#cite-note-193]`_`f]

>>In academic research

Rust's safety and performance have been investigated in `F33f`_`[programming language theory`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Programming_language_theory]`_`f research.`:cite-ref-194[`F5bf`_`[187`#cite-note-194]`_`f]`:cite-ref-unsaferustuse-118-1[`F5bf`_`[113`#cite-note-unsaferustuse-118]`_`f]`:cite-ref-195[`F5bf`_`[188`#cite-note-195]`_`f]

Rust's applicability to writing research software has been examined in other fields. A journal article published to `*`F33f`_`[Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Proceedings_of_the_International_Astronomical_Union]`_`f`* used Rust to simulate multi-planet systems.`:cite-ref-researchsoftware1-196-0[`F5bf`_`[189`#cite-note-researchsoftware1-196]`_`f] An article published in `*`F33f`_`[Nature`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Nature_(journal)]`_`f`* shared stories of bioinformaticians using Rust.`:cite-ref-nature-140-1[`F5bf`_`[134`#cite-note-nature-140]`_`f] Both articles found that Rust has advantages for its performance and safety, and cited the `F33f`_`[learning curve`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Learning_curve]`_`f as being a primary drawback to its adoption.

>>Community

According to the `*`F33f`_`[MIT Technology Review`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=MIT_Technology_Review]`_`f`*, the Rust community has been seen as "unusually friendly" to newcomers and particularly attracted people from the `F33f`_`[queer community`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Queer_community]`_`f, partly due to its `F33f`_`[code of conduct`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Code_of_conduct]`_`f which outlined a set of expectations for Rust community members to follow.`:cite-ref-mittechreview-16-19[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-mittechreview-16]`_`f] Inclusiveness of the community has been cited as an important factor for some Rust developers.`:cite-ref-nature-140-2[`F5bf`_`[134`#cite-note-nature-140]`_`f] Demographic data on the community has been collected and published by the Rust official blog.`:cite-ref-stateofrustsurvey2024-199-0[`F5bf`_`[192`#cite-note-stateofrustsurvey2024-199]`_`f]

According to `F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f's `*State of the Octoverse`* project, the Rust community grew by 50.5% in 2022, making it one of the fastest growing communities,`:cite-ref-200[`F5bf`_`[193`#cite-note-200]`_`f] though not one of the 10 largest communities as of 2024.`:cite-ref-201[`F5bf`_`[194`#cite-note-201]`_`f]

>>>Rust Foundation

The `!Rust Foundation`! is a `F33f`_`[non-profit`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Nonprofit_organization]`_`f `F33f`_`[membership organization`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Membership_organization]`_`f incorporated in `F33f`_`[United States`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=United_States]`_`f, with the primary purposes of backing the technical project as a `F33f`_`[legal entity`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Legal_entity]`_`f and helping to manage the trademark and infrastructure assets.`:cite-ref-202[`F5bf`_`[195`#cite-note-202]`_`f]`:cite-ref-4-49-1[`F5bf`_`[44`#cite-note-4-49]`_`f]

It was established on February 8, 2021, with five founding corporate members (Amazon Web Services, Huawei, Google, Microsoft, and Mozilla).`:cite-ref-203[`F5bf`_`[196`#cite-note-203]`_`f] The foundation's board is chaired by Shane Miller.`:cite-ref-204[`F5bf`_`[197`#cite-note-204]`_`f] Starting in late 2021, its Executive Director and CEO is Rebecca Rumbul.`:cite-ref-205[`F5bf`_`[198`#cite-note-205]`_`f] Prior to this, Ashley Williams was interim executive director.`:cite-ref-4-49-2[`F5bf`_`[44`#cite-note-4-49]`_`f]

>>>Governance teams

The Rust project is composed of `*teams`* that are responsible for different subareas of the development. The compiler team develops, manages, and optimizes compiler internals; and the language team designs new language features and helps implement them. The Rust project website lists 6 top-level teams as of July 2024.`:cite-ref-206[`F5bf`_`[199`#cite-note-206]`_`f] Representatives among teams form the Leadership council, which oversees the Rust project as a whole.`:cite-ref-207[`F5bf`_`[200`#cite-note-207]`_`f]

>>See also

• `F33f`_`[Comparison of programming languages`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Comparison_of_programming_languages]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[History of programming languages`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=History_of_programming_languages]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[List of programming languages`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_programming_languages]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[List of programming languages by type`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_programming_languages_by_type]`_`f

>>Notes

`:cite-note-3`!1.`! Including build tools, host tools, and standard library support for `F33f`_`[x86-64`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=X86-64]`_`f, `F33f`_`[ARM`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ARM_architecture_family]`_`f, `F33f`_`[MIPS`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=MIPS_architecture]`_`f, `F33f`_`[RISC-V`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=RISC-V]`_`f, `F33f`_`[WebAssembly`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=WebAssembly]`_`f, `F33f`_`[i686`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=P6_(microarchitecture)]`_`f, `F33f`_`[AArch64`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=AArch64]`_`f, `F33f`_`[PowerPC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=PowerPC]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[s390x`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Linux_on_IBM_Z]`_`f.`:cite-ref-crossplatform-2-0[`F5bf`_`[2`#cite-note-crossplatform-2]`_`f]

`:cite-note-4`!2.`! Including `F33f`_`[Windows`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Windows]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Linux`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Linux]`_`f, `F33f`_`[macOS`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=MacOS]`_`f, `F33f`_`[FreeBSD`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=FreeBSD]`_`f, `F33f`_`[NetBSD`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=NetBSD]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Illumos`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Illumos]`_`f. Host build tools on `F33f`_`[Android`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Android_(operating_system)]`_`f, `F33f`_`[iOS`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=IOS]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Haiku`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Haiku_(operating_system)]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Redox`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Redox_(operating_system)]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Fuchsia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Fuchsia_(operating_system)]`_`f are not officially shipped; these operating systems are supported as targets.`:cite-ref-crossplatform-2-1[`F5bf`_`[2`#cite-note-crossplatform-2]`_`f]

`:cite-note-7`!3.`! Third-party dependencies, e.g., `F33f`_`[LLVM`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=LLVM]`_`f or `F33f`_`[MSVC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=MSVC]`_`f, are subject to their own licenses.`:cite-ref-5[`F5bf`_`[3`#cite-note-5]`_`f]`:cite-ref-licenses-6-0[`F5bf`_`[4`#cite-note-licenses-6]`_`f]

`:cite-note-22`!note 4.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-22]`_`f The list of Rust compiler versions (referred to as a bootstrapping chain) has history going back to 2012.`:cite-ref-nelson2022rustconf-21-0[`F5bf`_`[18`#cite-note-nelson2022rustconf-21]`_`f]

`:cite-note-32`!note 5.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-32]`_`f Energy compared to C was 3% more for Rust and 34% more for C++; time was 4% more and 56% more, respectively.

`:cite-note-132`!note 6.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-132]`_`f wrapping `B100`F9d9no_mangle`f`b with `B100`F9d9unsafe`f`b as well as prefacing the `B100`F9d9extern "C"`f`b block with `B100`F9d9unsafe`f`b are required in the 2024 edition or later.`:cite-ref-131[`F5bf`_`[126`#cite-note-131]`_`f]

`:cite-note-192`!note 7.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-192]`_`f That is, among respondents who have done "extensive development work [with Rust] in over the past year" (14.8%), Rust had the largest percentage who also expressed interest to "work in [Rust] over the next year" (72.4%).`:cite-ref-so-2025-survey-190-1[`F5bf`_`[184`#cite-note-so-2025-survey-190]`_`f]

>>References

>>>Book sources

• `:citerefgjengset2021`aGjengset, Jon (2021). `*Rust for Rustaceans`* (1st ed.). No Starch Press. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 9781718501850. `F33f`_`[OCLC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=OCLC_(identifier)]`_`f 1277511986.

• `:citerefklabniknichols2019`aKlabnik, Steve; Nichols, Carol (2019-08-12). `*The Rust Programming Language (Covers Rust 2018)`*. No Starch Press. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-1-7185-0044-0.

• `:citerefblandyorendorfftindall2021`aBlandy, Jim; Orendorff, Jason; Tindall, Leonora F. S. (2021). `*Programming Rust: Fast, Safe Systems Development`* (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-1-4920-5254-8. `F33f`_`[OCLC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=OCLC_(identifier)]`_`f 1289839504.

• `:citerefmcnamara2021`aMcNamara, Tim (2021). `*Rust in Action`*. Manning Publications. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-1-6172-9455-6. `F33f`_`[OCLC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=OCLC_(identifier)]`_`f 1153044639.

• `:citerefklabniknichols2023`aKlabnik, Steve; Nichols, Carol (2023). `*The Rust programming language`* (2nd ed.). No Starch Press. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-1-7185-0310-6. `F33f`_`[OCLC`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=OCLC_(identifier)]`_`f 1363816350.

>>>Others

`:cite-note-wikidata-42eccb0a605b229c6b6eea550d8b48ffbb9477d8-v20-1`!4.`! "Announcing Rust 1.89.0". 2025-08-07. Retrieved 2025-08-07.

`:cite-note-crossplatform-2`!2.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-crossplatform-2-0]`_`f "Platform Support". `*The rustc book`*. Archived from the original on 2022-06-30. Retrieved 2022-06-27.

`:cite-note-5`!3.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-5]`_`f "Copyright". `*`F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f`*. The Rust Programming Language. 2022-10-19. Archived from the original on 2023-07-22. Retrieved 2022-10-19.

`:cite-note-licenses-6`!4.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-licenses-6-0]`_`f "Licenses". `*The Rust Programming Language`*. Archived from the original on 2025-02-23. Retrieved 2025-03-07.

`:cite-note-8`!5.`! "Uniqueness Types". `*Rust Blog`*. Archived from the original on 2016-09-15. Retrieved 2016-10-08. Those of you familiar with the Elm style may recognize that the updated --explain messages draw heavy inspiration from the Elm approach.

`:cite-note-influences-9`!6.`! "Influences". `*The Rust Reference`*. Archived from the original on 2023-11-26. Retrieved 2023-12-31.

`:cite-note-10`!7.`! "Uniqueness Types". `*Idris 1.3.3 documentation`*. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2022-07-14. They are inspired by ... ownership types and borrowed pointers in the Rust programming language.

`:cite-note-project-verona-11`!8.`! `:citereftung`aTung, Liam. "Microsoft opens up Rust-inspired Project Verona programming language on GitHub". `*`F33f`_`[ZDNET`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ZDNET]`_`f`*. Archived from the original on 2020-01-17. Retrieved 2020-01-17.

`:cite-note-jaloyan-12`!9.`! `:citerefjaloyan2017`aJaloyan, Georges-Axel (2017-10-19). "Safe Pointers in SPARK 2014". `F33f`_`[arXiv`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ArXiv_(identifier)]`_`f:1710.07047 [cs.PL].

`:cite-note-lattner-13`!10.`! `:citereflattner`aLattner, Chris. "Chris Lattner's Homepage". `*Nondot`*. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2019-05-14.

`:cite-note-14`!11.`! "V documentation (Introduction)". `*`F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f`*. The V Programming Language. Retrieved 2023-11-04.

`:cite-note-15`!12.`! `:citerefyegulalp2016`aYegulalp, Serdar (2016-08-29). "New challenger joins Rust to topple C language". `*`F33f`_`[InfoWorld`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=InfoWorld]`_`f`*. Archived from the original on 2021-11-25. Retrieved 2022-10-19.

`:cite-note-mittechreview-16`!13.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-mittechreview-16-0]`_`f `:citerefthompson2023`aThompson, Clive (2023-02-14). "How Rust went from a side project to the world's most-loved programming language". `*MIT Technology Review`*. Archived from the original on 2024-09-19. Retrieved 2023-02-23.

`:cite-note-klabnik2016acmhistory-17`!14.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-klabnik2016acmhistory-17-0]`_`f `:citerefklabnik2016`aKlabnik, Steve (2016-06-02). "The History of Rust". `*Applicative 2016`*. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. p. 80. `F33f`_`[doi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Doi_(identifier)]`_`f:10.1145/2959689.2960081. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-1-4503-4464-7.

`:cite-note-hoare2010-18`!15.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-hoare2010-18-0]`_`f `:citerefhoare2010`aHoare, Graydon (July 2010). `*Project Servo: Technology from the past come to save the future from itself`* (PDF). Mozilla Annual Summit. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-26. Retrieved 2024-10-29.

`:cite-note-ocamlcompiler-19`!16.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-ocamlcompiler-19-0]`_`f `:citerefhoare2016`aHoare, Graydon (November 2016). "Rust Prehistory (Archive of the original Rust OCaml compiler source code)". `*`F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f`*. Retrieved 2024-10-29.

`:cite-note-rust0-1-20`!17.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-rust0-1-20-0]`_`f "0.1 first supported public release Milestone · rust-lang/rust". `*`F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f`*. Retrieved 2024-10-29.

`:cite-note-nelson2022rustconf-21`!18.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-nelson2022rustconf-21-0]`_`f `:citerefnelson2022`aNelson, Jynn (2022-08-05). `*RustConf 2022 - Bootstrapping: The once and future compiler`*. Portland, Oregon: Rust Team. Retrieved 2024-10-29 – via YouTube.

`:cite-note-23`!19.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-23]`_`f "Rust logo". `*`F33f`_`[Bugzilla`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bugzilla]`_`f`*. Archived from the original on 2024-02-02. Retrieved 2024-02-02.

`:cite-note-rust0-1a-24`!20.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-rust0-1a-24-0]`_`f `:citerefanderson2012`aAnderson, Brian (2012-01-24). "[rust-dev] The Rust compiler 0.1 is unleashed". `*rust-dev`* (Mailing list). Archived from the original on 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2025-01-07.

`:cite-note-extremetechrust0-1-25`!21.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-extremetechrust0-1-25-0]`_`f `:citerefanthony2012`aAnthony, Sebastian (2012-01-24). "Mozilla releases Rust 0.1, the language that will eventually usurp Firefox's C++". `*ExtremeTech`*. Retrieved 2025-01-07.

`:cite-note-26`!22.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-26]`_`f "Purity by pcwalton · Pull Request #5412 · rust-lang/rust". `*`F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f`*. Retrieved 2024-10-29.

`:cite-note-27`!23.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-27]`_`f `:citerefbinstock2014`aBinstock, Andrew (2014-01-07). "The Rise And Fall of Languages in 2013". `*`F33f`_`[Dr. Dobb's Journal`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dr._Dobb's_Journal]`_`f`*. Archived from the original on 2016-08-07. Retrieved 2022-11-20.

`:cite-note-28`!24.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-28]`_`f `:citereflardinois2015`aLardinois, Frederic (2015-04-03). "Mozilla And Samsung Team Up To Develop Servo, Mozilla's Next-Gen Browser Engine For Multicore Processors". `*`F33f`_`[TechCrunch`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=TechCrunch]`_`f`*. Archived from the original on 2016-09-10. Retrieved 2017-06-25.

`:cite-note-29`!25.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-29]`_`f "Firefox 45.0, See All New Features, Updates and Fixes". `*Mozilla`*. Archived from the original on 2016-03-17. Retrieved 2024-10-31.

`:cite-note-30`!26.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-30]`_`f `:citereflardinois2017`aLardinois, Frederic (2017-09-29). "It's time to give Firefox another chance". `*`F33f`_`[TechCrunch`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=TechCrunch]`_`f`*. Archived from the original on 2023-08-15. Retrieved 2023-08-15.

`:cite-note-2017portugalenergystudy-31`!27.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-2017portugalenergystudy-31-0]`_`f `:citerefpereiracoutoribeirorua2017`aPereira, Rui; Couto, Marco; Ribeiro, Francisco; Rua, Rui; Cunha, Jácome; Fernandes, João Paulo; Saraiva, João (2017-10-23). "Energy efficiency across programming languages: How do energy, time, and memory relate?". `*Proceedings of the 10th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Software Language Engineering`*. SLE 2017. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 256–267. `F33f`_`[doi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Doi_(identifier)]`_`f:10.1145/3136014.3136031. `F33f`_`[hdl`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hdl_(identifier)]`_`f:1822/65359. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-1-4503-5525-4.

`:cite-note-33`!28.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-33]`_`f `:citerefcimpanu2020`aCimpanu, Catalin (2020-08-11). "Mozilla lays off 250 employees while it refocuses on commercial products". `*`F33f`_`[ZDNET`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ZDNET]`_`f`*. Archived from the original on 2022-03-18. Retrieved 2020-12-02.

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`:cite-note-39`!34.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-39]`_`f `:citerefamadeo2021`aAmadeo, Ron (2021-04-07). "Google is now writing low-level Android code in Rust". `*Ars Technica`*. Archived from the original on 2021-04-08. Retrieved 2021-04-08.

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>>External links

• Official website

• Source code on `F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f

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